| The Muslim period
In 712 CE, a Syrian Muslim chieftain called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire, but the instability of the empire resulted in effective control only over Sind and southern Punjab. The provincial capital of "As-Sindh" was at Al-Mansurah, 72 km north of modern Hyderabad. There was gradual conversion to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Buddhists, Hindus and other non-Muslim groups remained numerous.[40] In 997 CE Mahmud of Ghazni conquered the bulk of Khorasan and in 1005 marched on Peshawar, followed by the conquest of Punjab in 1007, Balochistan in 1011, Kashmir in 1015 and Qanoch in 1017. By the end of his reign in 1030, Mahmud's empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna river in the east, and the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary historians such as Abolfazl Beyhaqi and Ferdowsi described extensive building work in Lahore, as well as Mahmud's support and patronage of literature and the arts.
The Age of the Caliphs
Prophet Mohammad, 622-632
Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661
Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 |